Cell death is the ultimate fate of all cells. The modes of cell death area major research focus in the biomedical field, involving a variety of complex biological mechanisms. The primary function of cell death is to maintain tissue homeostasis by eliminating dysfunctional, damaged, and harmful cells. In 2005, the first Nomenclature Committee on Cell Death provided a relatively clear definition, describing cell death as a state distinct from the reversible condition of dying cells,adead cell is defined as one that has reached the end of its life cycle and is in an irreversible state.Figure 1. The discovery timeline of cell death1.Types of Cell DeathThere are two main forms of cell death......

Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is an insidiously onset, progressive neurodegenerative disorder. Its core pathological features include the deposition of β-amyloid (Aβ) protein in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus to form senile plaques, the abnormal phosphorylation and aggregation of tau protein to form neurofibrillary tangles, as well as massive neuronal loss and synaptic dysfunction. These changes ultimately lead to progressive cognitive decline and behavioral impairment in patients. During the pathogenesis of AD, neuroinflammatory responses and immune dysfunction play crucial roles. A variety of cytokines, chemokines, and inflammatory mediators promote disease progression through re......

Dual Guardian: Decoding the Key Role of Toll-like Receptors in Immunity and Disease1. Introduction ofthe Toll-like receptor familyToll-like receptors (TLRs) are a group of pattern recognition receptors that play a significant role in the development and maintenance of the immune system. These receptors can recognize foreign pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) as well as endogenous by-products of cell damage, namely damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). Signal transduction through TLR leads to the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and other inflammatory response mediators. Therefore, TLR and its signaling pathway effectors are crucial for the functions of both ......

Decoding the "Invisible Army" of the Human Body: How Does Your Immune System Safeguard Your Health?The immune system is a sophisticated and complex defense network in the human body, composed of cells, tissues and organs. Its core mission is to identify and eliminate "non-self" substances, such as pathogens (bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites), foreign substances (such as transplanted organs, pollen, dust), and abnormal cells within the body (such as cancer cells), while avoiding attacking its own healthy tissues, thereby maintaining the health and stability of the body. The immune system is generally divided into two major parts: "innate immunity" and &q......

Diabetes is a serious health problem worldwide. It is caused by chronic high glucose levels in the blood as a result of the incapability of β cells in the pancreas to produce adequate insulin or ineffective insulin utilization by cells in the body. There are generally 3 types of diabetes: Type I, II and gestational diabetes but more emphasis is placed on the first 2 types of diabetes. As a chronic condition, diabetes tends to increase the risk of several other diseases caused by macrovascular and microvascular damage, and it has negative impacts on several organs, such as the brain, kidney, heart, and eyes. In addition, diabetic patients are more susceptible to infection.Insulin is a p......

The MAPK/ERK signaling pathway: A core hub from basic biology to human diseases1. Introduction of the MAPK PathwayThe mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade is a key signaling pathway regulating various cellular processes, including proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis and stress response. The MAPK pathway functions through signal cascades, transmitting extracellular signals to intracellular targets, enabling cells to respond to various specific extracellular stimuli. The MAPK pathway includes three major kinases, namely MAPK kinase-kinase (MAP3K), MAPK kinase (MAPKK), and MAPK, which activate and phosphorylate downstream proteins. Current research has identified four maj......