Imbalance leads to disease, regulation for treatment: Focusing on the disease code and therapeutic breakthroughs of TCR signal transduction1. Introduction to T-cell ReceptorsT cells are the key mediators for generating effective cell-mediated adaptive immune responses. The development of T cells in the thymus involves T cell receptor (TCR) signaling. Cells carrying TCR with high affinity for their own peptide-MHC complexes undergo apoptosis, while cells carrying TCR with low affinity survive and differentiate into mature T cells. These mature T cells leave the thymus and enter peripheral lymphoid organs. During pathogenic infections, they are exposed to exogenous peptides presented by ......

Autoimmune disease (AID) refers to the phenomenon where the body's immune system mounts an immune response against its own tissue cells. When such an immune response leads to cellular destruction or tissue damage, accompanied by clinical symptoms, it is termed an autoimmune disease. Any of a group of conditions or disorders that result from immune system malfunction, in which immune components react against the body's own normal cells. Autoimmune diseases are divided into two classes: organ-specific and systemic. An organ-specific disease is one in which an immune response is directed against antigens in a single organ; examples include Addison's disease, in which autoantib......

The "Sentinel System" within Cells: Decoding How NOD-like Receptors Regulate Health and Disease1. Introduction of the NOD-like receptor familyThe NOD-like receptor (NLR) protein family is a group of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that have attracted much attention due to their core role in maintaining tissue homeostasis and resisting bacterial, viral, and fungal infections by detecting pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs).1.1 Structure of the NLR FamilyMembers of the NLR protein family share many common structural features. All of them have C-terminal leucine repeat (LRR) domains involved in ligand recognition, ......

Cell death is the ultimate fate of all cells. The modes of cell death area major research focus in the biomedical field, involving a variety of complex biological mechanisms. The primary function of cell death is to maintain tissue homeostasis by eliminating dysfunctional, damaged, and harmful cells. In 2005, the first Nomenclature Committee on Cell Death provided a relatively clear definition, describing cell death as a state distinct from the reversible condition of dying cells,adead cell is defined as one that has reached the end of its life cycle and is in an irreversible state.Figure 1. The discovery timeline of cell death1.Types of Cell DeathThere are two main forms of cell deat......

Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is an insidiously onset, progressive neurodegenerative disorder. Its core pathological features include the deposition of β-amyloid (Aβ) protein in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus to form senile plaques, the abnormal phosphorylation and aggregation of tau protein to form neurofibrillary tangles, as well as massive neuronal loss and synaptic dysfunction. These changes ultimately lead to progressive cognitive decline and behavioral impairment in patients. During the pathogenesis of AD, neuroinflammatory responses and immune dysfunction play crucial roles. A variety of cytokines, chemokines, and inflammatory mediators promote disease progression through re......

Dual Guardian: Decoding the Key Role of Toll-like Receptors in Immunity and Disease1. Introduction ofthe Toll-like receptor familyToll-like receptors (TLRs) are a group of pattern recognition receptors that play a significant role in the development and maintenance of the immune system. These receptors can recognize foreign pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) as well as endogenous by-products of cell damage, namely damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). Signal transduction through TLR leads to the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and other inflammatory response mediators. Therefore, TLR and its signaling pathway effectors are crucial for the functions of both ......